Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns – Detailed NCERT Solutions

Short Answer (100–150 words)

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?

Answer: Evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities includes archaeological finds of fine ware pottery like Northern Black Polished Ware, ornaments made of gold, silver, bronze, glass, and terracotta, as well as artefacts such as tools and religious images. Inscriptions from this period mention professions like weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, and goldsmiths. Urban craft production was organized through guilds (shrenis), which regulated quality and trade. Unlike Harappan cities, where production was often state-organized and highly standardized with little inscriptional evidence mentioning craftspersons, Early Historic cities present both material remains and written records, showing specialized crafts and social organization among artisans.

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.

Answer: Mahajanapadas were sixteen major states that emerged during the sixth century BCE. Their salient features include monarchic or oligarchic forms of government, fortified capital cities, and standing armies. Most mahajanapadas required extensive resources for military and administrative functions, collecting taxes and tributes from cultivators, traders, and artisans. Some, like Vajji and Kuru, were governed by oligarchies (ganas or sanghas). Expansion often involved raids and warfare for wealth. The rise of coinage and urban centers also marked this period.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?

Answer: Historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people using a wide range of sources: inscriptions, Buddhist and Jaina literature, accounts of foreign travelers, coins, artefacts, and visual material. Popular stories such as Jatakas and Panchatantra reflect experiences of common people, revealing struggles like heavy taxation and migration. Archaeological remains provide evidence of social differentiation through settlements, tools, and burial practices. However, since most inscriptions were commissioned by patrons, experiences of marginalized groups are often reconstructed by critically reading between the lines and using diverse sources.

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?

Answer: The Pandyan chief received gifts of luxury and exotic items like ivory, fragrant wood, peacocks, and speaking parrots, highlighting the prosperity and reach of chiefs through tribute. In the village of Danguna, products included agricultural goods, forest produce like bark, honey, peacock feathers, and fruits. Both lists show reliance on local natural resources and forest products, but while the chief’s gifts are more prestigious, village production appears utilitarian and tied to daily sustenance.

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.

Answer: Epigraphists face several problems including incomplete or damaged inscriptions, faint or eroded scripts, usage of rare local terms, and deciphering scripts that are undeciphered or unpublished. Sometimes, the language is ambiguous or context-specific. Moreover, inscriptions often reflect only the patron’s or ruler’s perspectives, rarely offering direct accounts of ordinary or marginalized people’s lives. Many inscriptions are lost or remain undiscovered, further complicating research.

Essay (approx. 500 words)

6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in Asokan inscriptions?

Answer: The Mauryan administration was a highly structured and centralized system stretching across vast territories. One of the defining features was the division of the empire into provinces and administrative units, each governed by officials reporting to the center at Pataliputra. There were five main political centers: Pataliputra (capital), Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. Control was strongest around these centers, and weaker in outlying areas. The state maintained a large standing army and an extensive bureaucracy. Officials were appointed for various departments supervising agriculture, irrigation, trade, industry, and public works. Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, described officers who superintended rivers, measured land, managed irrigation, regulated forests, oversaw crafts, collected taxes, and maintained law and order. The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, provides details about statecraft, economic policies, espionage, and judiciary. Land revenue was the primary source of income, supplemented by taxes on trade and professions. The state also controlled natural resources such as forests and mines, as highlighted by regulations over elephant forests. Mauryan emperors, especially Asoka, sought to propagate ethical governance through dhamma (righteous conduct), promoting benevolence and non-violence. Asoka’s unique system included appointing dhamma mahamattas—special officers to promote moral and welfare policies, attend to public grievances, and look after both lay and monastic communities. Many of these features are directly supported by Asokan inscriptions. Edicts found on rocks and pillars across the empire mention the five major centers, officers engaged in welfare work, and regulations over administration, public works, and animal protection. Inscriptions detail Asoka's direct communication with people through his officers, and his concern for justice, compassion, and good governance. These inscriptions provide valuable, firsthand evidence about Mauryan administrative structure, priorities, and ethical vision.

7. “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss. (D.C. Sircar)

Answer: Indian inscriptions are a crucial historical source, offering valuable insights into almost every facet of ancient and early medieval life. Rulers, officials, traders, artisans, and religious figures used inscriptions to record achievements, donations, land grants, construction projects, laws, and messages of moral guidance. Edicts, like those of Asoka, propagated governance ideals and social welfare. Land grants to Brahmanas and religious institutions, limited tax exemptions, and village rights are mentioned on copper plates and stone, reflecting economic activities and rural organization. Some inscriptions detail the construction of tanks, temples, and public works, revealing technological skills and state priorities. Guild inscriptions preserve information on urban crafts, occupational groups, and trade practices. Donations to religious institutions showcase social and cultural values, while royal charters display notions of power and kingship. However, despite this diversity, some everyday experiences and voices of marginalized groups are less visible due to the official nature of most inscriptions. Nonetheless, the overall epigraphic record provides a rich window into political, economic, social, and cultural realities, offering unparalleled documentation over nearly two millennia of Indian civilization.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.

Answer: Post-Mauryan notions of kingship became more diverse and elaborate. In southern and Deccan regions, polities like the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Satavahanas emphasized royal authority based on military strength, economic resources from trade, and the ruler's capacity for gift-giving and redistribution. Chiefs were often seen as powerful leaders, receiving local gifts rather than formal taxes, and maintaining support among kin and allies. In northwestern India, the Kushanas introduced and popularized the concept of divine kingship, adopting titles such as devaputra (son of god), possibly influenced by contemporary Central Asian and Chinese traditions. Later, the Guptas relied on alliances with samantas (regional lords) to consolidate and exercise power. The ideology of rulers as universal sovereigns (chakravartin), benevolent patrons, and upholders of dharma also became prominent. Prashastis (royal eulogies) like the Allahabad Pillar Inscription praised kings as supreme beings, compassionate and just, often equating them to gods. The linkage of kingship with divine sanction and ritualized power deepened in the post-Mauryan era, resulting in more elaborate court cultures, coinage with royal images, and monumental architecture attributed to kings.

9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?

Answer: Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, agriculture in the Indian subcontinent underwent major transformation. The Ganga and Kaveri valleys saw widespread adoption of iron-tipped ploughs, improving productivity. In areas with alluvial soil and abundant rainfall, the labor-intensive method of transplantation of paddy became common, increasing yields. The construction of large irrigation reservoirs, like Sudarshana lake in Gujarat, further expanded cultivable land. Evidence suggests increased stratification in rural society with landless laborers, small peasants, large landholders, and hereditary headmen. The granting of land, especially to Brahmanas, indicates expansion of agriculture into forested areas. New crops and use of improved techniques contributed to surplus production, enabling the growth of towns and trade. Thus, the period witnessed profound changes in agricultural systems, technology, landholding patterns, and rural society.

Map Work

10. Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the mahajanapadas possibly included in the Mauryan Empire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found in these areas?

Answer: By comparing Map 1 (Mahajanapadas) and Map 2 (Distribution of Asokan inscriptions), several mahajanapadas fall within the Mauryan Empire such as Magadha, Koshala, Vajji, Avanti, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and possibly others like Anga and Malla. Asokan inscriptions have been found at sites within these regions—most notably in Magadha (Pataliputra), Taxila (Gandhara), Ujjayini (Avanti), and others, indicating Mauryan administrative coverage and propagation of dhamma in these areas.

Projects (choose one)

11. Collect newspapers for one month. Cut and paste all statements by government officials about public works. Analyze resources for such projects, methods of mobilization, and objectives. Compare/contrast with ancient inscriptional evidence.

Answer: (Students are expected to carry out the activity by collecting current statements and comparing them with ancient inscriptions about public works such as the creation of lakes, roads, and temples; the analysis should focus on methods, resources, and objectives in both historical and modern contexts.)

12. Collect five different currency notes and coins in use today. Describe their images, scripts, sizes, etc. Compare with coins shown in this chapter—their materials, minting techniques, symbols, and functions.

Answer: (Students should collect actual coins and notes, describe them in detail—material, images, symbols, scripts, denomination, security features—and compare with ancient coins such as punch-marked coins, those of Kushanas, Yaudheyas, and Guptas, especially regarding imagery, materials, and uses in trade.)

NCERT Solutions Class 12 History Chapter 2 Kings Farmers And Towns (2025-26)

Mastering Kings, Farmers and Towns is made easy with these chapter-wise NCERT solutions. Understand early states, the rise of Mahajanapadas, and the transformation of rural society for your board exams and entrance preparation.

This chapter highlights the Mauryan administration, evolution of kingship ideas, growth in agriculture, and the emergence of towns. Reviewing these solutions helps students strengthen concepts for higher accuracy in upcoming exams.

Practice regularly, revise important maps, and focus on exam tips for Class 12 History Chapter 2 NCERT Solutions. Structured preparation boosts your confidence and maximizes your chances of scoring excellent marks in History!