Class 12 History Chapter 8 NCERT Solutions: Peasants, Zamindars and the State

NCERT Solutions Class 12 History Chapter 8 Peasants Zamindars And The State (2025-26)

Exercises & Short Essays

1. What are the problems in using the Ain as a source for reconstructing agrarian history? How do historians deal with this situation?
   Answer in 100–150 words.
   Answer: The Ain-i Akbari, authored by Abu’l Fazl, was written from the Mughal court’s perspective and primarily reflects the interests and ideologies of the ruling class. It presents an idealised, official view, often overlooking the lived realities and voices of peasants. Moreover, it sometimes exaggerates efficiency or harmony, suppressing the existence of social conflicts and diverse regional practices. Historians overcome these limitations by supplementing the Ain with additional sources, such as regional revenue records, accounts from later periods, local literature, and British East India Company documents. This helps them reconstruct a comparatively balanced and nuanced understanding of agrarian history, incorporating the perspectives of various actors in society.
2. To what extent is it possible to characterise agricultural production in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries as subsistence agriculture? Give reasons for your answer.
   Answer: Agricultural production in sixteenth and seventeenth-century India cannot be described merely as subsistence agriculture. While staple food grains like rice, wheat, and millets dominated, many peasants also cultivated commercial crops such as cotton, sugarcane, indigo, and tobacco, which were sold in local markets. The expansion of trade, imposition of taxes by the Mughal state, and encouragement to grow high-value crops reveal that surplus production for commercial purposes existed alongside subsistence farming. The diversity of crops—including those introduced from other regions—further demonstrates that the system combined both subsistence and commercial elements.
3. Describe the role played by women in agricultural production.
   Answer: Women contributed significantly to agrarian production by participating in every stage of farming. They worked in sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, and storage. Female labour was crucial in artisanal and household-based industries like spinning yarn, pottery-making, and embroidery. Women also performed tasks essential to food processing, such as sifting grain and kneading clay. Their collective participation was vital both within family farms and as wage labourers in construction projects (e.g., Fatehpur Sikri), where they often undertook physically demanding roles. However, social biases limited women’s control over land and property.
4. Discuss, with examples, the significance of monetary transactions during the period under consideration.
   Answer: The period witnessed a considerable growth in monetary transactions due to increased agricultural surplus, trade, and the inflow of silver through commerce with Europe and Asia. The Mughal state often collected land revenue in cash, stimulating the use and circulation of coinage. This led to minting of currency like the silver rupya, seen in Akbar’s and Aurangzeb’s reigns. Expanded markets for cash crops, textiles, and spices reinforced the importance of monetary exchanges, integrating rural producers with urban and overseas markets. Monetary transactions thus fostered economic integration and dynamism in Mughal India.
5. Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.
   Answer: Land revenue was the largest source of income for the Mughal Empire. The entire administrative structure was closely linked to the assessment and collection of revenue. Sources like the Ain-i Akbari describe the classification of land, detailed survey methods, and regulations to maximise agricultural income. Revenue was expected to be paid both in cash and kind. State agents like revenue assessors and collectors ensured regular taxation. The practice of maintaining 'jama' (assessed) and 'hasil' (collected amounts) further underscores its emphasis in fiscal policy. Land revenue funded military expenses, administration, and imperial projects.
6. To what extent do you think caste was a factor in influencing social and economic relations in agrarian society?
   Write a short essay (about 250–300 words).
   Answer: Caste played a significant role in shaping social and economic relations in the agrarian society of sixteenth and seventeenth-century India. The hierarchical structure of caste determined access to land, resources, occupations, and social status. At the top of the rural hierarchy were the zamindars and large landholders, who mostly belonged to dominant castes or clans. Peasants were divided into categories, with ‘khud-kashta’ (resident cultivators) often having higher status than ‘pahi-kashta’ (non-resident cultivators). Lower castes such as agricultural labourers, menials, and those engaged in ‘polluting’ occupations, like scavenging or boatmanship, lived on the periphery of villages and had limited rights and economic opportunities. In Muslim communities, distinctions existed as well; for instance, halalkhoran and mallahzadas were akin to the lowest rungs in the social order. Economic mobility was possible for some castes, such as Ahirs, Gujars, and Malis, who rose in local hierarchies through cattle rearing and horticulture. The panchayat system and caste panchayats upheld and enforced social boundaries by imposing fines or punishments for breaking caste norms. Despite this rigidity, certain guilds and artisanal groups transcended caste barriers in their professional exchange. Nevertheless, the relationship between caste, landholding, labour, and social power remained deeply entrenched and shaped the patterns of cooperation, conflict, and everyday life in agrarian communities.
7. How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
   Answer: During this period, large tracts of forests were cleared for cultivation as the Mughal administration expanded. Forest dwellers—often called ‘jangli’—faced intrusion from agricultural settlers, officials, and military activity. They were gradually drawn into market exchanges, supplying forest produce to urban centres and paying tribute to the state. Some adapted by participating in trade, while others resisted encroachment. The expansion of agriculture and revenue systems transformed their livelihoods, marginalised many, and integrated some into new economic roles.
8. Examine the role played by zamindars in Mughal India.
   Answer: Zamindars were influential rural elites who owned large tracts of land and exercised control over peasants. They collected land revenue on behalf of the Mughal state and enjoyed significant social and economic privileges, often commanding their own militias. In return for their services, they received a share of the revenue and maintained local order. Zamindars could challenge state authority and at times led local revolts. Their pivotal role as intermediaries linked the state, peasantry, and rural society, making them vital to the Mughal administrative and agrarian system.
9. Discuss the ways in which panchayats and village headmen regulated rural society.
   Answer: Village panchayats, composed of elders and headed by the ‘muqaddam’ or ‘mandal’, governed daily life in the countryside. They resolved disputes, maintained village accounts, enforced caste boundaries, and supervised welfare of the community. Panchayats could impose fines, expel transgressors, and allocate land. The headman managed tax collection with the help of the ‘patwari’ (accountant). Jati panchayats addressed issues within castes. Together, these institutions provided local governance, ensured social discipline, and acted as intermediaries between villagers and authorities.

Map Work

10. On an outline map of the world, mark the areas which had economic links with the Mughal Empire, and trace out possible routes of communication.
    Answer: Students should mark regions such as Central Asia, Persia (Iran), Arabia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Europe (especially Portugal and England), and show main trade routes through land (Silk Road) and sea (Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf) connecting to Indian ports.

Project (choose one)

11. Visit a neighbouring village. Find out how many people live there, which crops are grown, which animals are raised, which artisanal groups reside there, whether women own land, how the local panchayat functions. Compare this information with what you have learnt about the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries, noting similarities and differences. Explain both the changes and the continuities that you find.
12. Select a small section of the Ain (10-12 pages, available online at the website indicated below). Read it carefully and prepare a report on how it can be used by a historian.

(Note: Project work to be completed by students as per instructions given in the textbook and by your teacher.)

Peasants Zamindars and the Mughal Agrarian Society – Key Concepts & Exam Tips

The chapter Peasants, Zamindars and the State explores how rural society and the Mughal Empire were closely linked through agriculture, land revenue, and social hierarchies. Understanding these connections is essential for building strong conceptual clarity in Class 12 History.

Focus on the roles of zamindars, village panchayats, and women in agrarian society, as well as the revenue systems. Pay attention to how caste, trade, and changing crops affected everyday life during this period—these are common exam themes in the 2025-26 syllabus.

Regularly revising key events, such as Akbar’s land reforms or the flow of silver, will help boost your confidence and maximize your score in CBSE board exams. Use timelines and connect social, economic, and political changes for higher-order answers.