Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Class 12 History Chapter 6 CBSE Notes - 2025-26

India between the 8th and 18th centuries saw major shifts in religious faith, devotion, and practice. Traditions of Bhakti (personal devotion) and Sufism (Islamic mysticism) flourished, transforming the way people related to the divine.

These traditions developed through stories, poetry, and the lives of saints who often spoke and composed in regional languages rather than Sanskrit or Arabic. This encouraged the spread of new ideas among ordinary people and made the religious landscape highly diverse.

A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices New forms of worship and different deities appeared across India. Important gods like Vishnu, Shiva, and various forms of the Goddess were worshipped in many ways. 

Local beliefs were often merged with Brahmanical (mainstream) practices, as priests adapted local deities into larger religious traditions. For example, the deity Jagannatha at Puri was a local wooden idol but became seen as a manifestation of Vishnu, blending tribal and Puranic elements.

With so many regional traditions, differences and even conflicts did arise. Tantric practices associated with the Goddess accepted men and women from all castes, while some orthodox groups criticized such practices. 

Over time, different customs were categorized broadly as “Hindu,” but identities often stayed local. Vedic gods such as Agni and Soma faded into the background.

Early Bhakti Traditions: Alvars and Nayanars Bhakti poet-saints in South India, notably the Alvars (devoted to Vishnu) and Nayanars (devoted to Shiva), expressed their love and devotion through songs and poems. 

These were written in Tamil, the language of the region, and compiled into texts revered as much as Vedic scriptures. Their approach was simple and emotional, focusing on a personal relationship with God, and challenging ritual, caste, and gender discrimination.

Alvars and Nayanars welcomed followers from all social backgrounds, including lower castes and women. Some saints, like Tondaradippodi (an Alvar), claimed 

God cared more for a true devotee of any birth than for learned priests without devotion. 

Women also became saints, such as Karaikkal Ammaiyar, who challenged traditional ideas of beauty and femininity through her intense devotion.

Virashaiva/Lingayat Movement in Karnataka The 12th-century Virashaiva movement led by Basavanna in Karnataka rejected distinctions of caste and ritual purity. Followers, called Lingayats, devoted themselves to Shiva (as a linga), opposed the caste system, and even practiced burial instead of cremation, unlike orthodox Hindus. 

Their teachings, known as vachanas, were written in Kannada and included voices of both men and women. They often criticized rituals and idol worship, arguing personal devotion was what truly mattered.

Religious Diversity and Sufi Orders in the North In North India, even though temple worship continued, new groups such as the Naths, Siddhas, and Jogis rose, often from craft communities. 

They used vernacular languages and doubted the authority of Vedic rituals. Meanwhile, Islam spread with new rulers, and Sufi saints came to have a strong appeal across religions.

Rulers like Akbar and Aurangzeb sometimes supported non-Muslim religious groups as well. The term "zimmi" was used for non-Muslims, granting them protection and the right to practice their own faith. 

Islamic practices among ordinary people also absorbed local custom—such as devotional poetry meetings (ginan) and regional languages for prayer in places like Kerala or among Khojah communities.

Growth and Practices of Sufism Sufism, which emphasizes devotion, love, and personal experience of God, became popular through "silsilas" (spiritual chains) and "khanqahs" (community centers led by Sufi pirs). Sufi tombs, called dargahs, became places of pilgrimage for thousands, not only Muslims. 

The Chishti order was especially well-known in India, with famous teachers like Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, attracting people from all backgrounds.

In Sufi khanqahs, charity (langar), music (qawwali), and spiritual lectures were common. Sufis used many languages to spread their teachings: Hindavi and Dakhani (early forms of Hindi/Urdu), Punjabi, and Bengali. 

Outside the main Sufi orders were the more radical groups—Qalandars and Malangs—who rejected social norms and religious law.

Interaction between Sufis and Rulers Although Sufis valued simplicity and independence, rulers often visited Sufi shrines, sought blessings, or made donations to gain legitimacy and blessing. 

Some, like Nizamuddin Auliya, refused royal gifts, preferring to keep the spiritual sphere independent from politics.

Bhakti and Sufi Movements: New Voices and Social Equality New devotional paths continued to emerge. Saints like Kabir questioned all formal religious identities and stressed devotion to a single God, regardless of name. 

Kabir's verses, recorded in various collections and Sikh scripture, are direct and simple, using local languages. He underlined the unity of God, opposed caste, and mocked both Hindu and Muslim rituals.

Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism) also spread a message of one God, rejected image worship, ritual, and caste, and set up the Sikh community (sangat), with a tradition of ten successive gurus. 

The Adi Granth Sahib, the Sikh holy book, includes his compositions and verses from other saints. Later, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, marking Sikhism as a distinct community with its own practices and symbols.

Mirabai, a Rajput princess, also defied social expectations by becoming a devotee of Krishna, wandering as a saint and composing devotional songs. She broke with her royal family and caste traditions, taking as her guru a low-caste saint, Raidas.

Sources and Timeline Historians reconstruct these histories using many sources: poetry, songs, hagiographies, treatises, letters, and oral traditions. 

There is a long timeline of teachers: from Appar, Andal, and Nammalvar in the south; Al Hujwiri and Nizamuddin Auliya in the north; Basavanna in Karnataka; Kabir, Surdas, and Tulsidas in the Hindi belt; to Mirabai in Rajasthan and Chaitanya in Bengal.

Practice Questions and Further Reading Students are often examined on topics such as the integration of cults, mosque architecture blending local and universal traditions, differences between Sufi orders, and the writings of saints like Kabir or Guru Nanak. Suggested readings include works by Richard Eaton, John S. Hawley, A.K. Ramanujan, and others for deeper study into India’s Bhakti-Sufi traditions.

Class 12 History Chapter 6 Notes – Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Themes in Indian History

These Class 12 History Chapter 6 notes give a clear and structured summary of Bhakti and Sufi traditions, making it easier to revise important facts and concepts from the NCERT. Students can quickly recall key religious developments and saint movements, supporting last-minute preparations for exams.

Focused revision through these notes helps grasp the connection between regional practices and major religious changes in Indian history. The concise points, tables, and chronological order offer better retention and understanding of major beliefs, practices, and historical events.