How Do Enkephalins Work in the Human Body?
The answer to the question of what is enkephalin can be found within the body itself as it is internally produced hormones. The enkephalins are ligands generated by the body. Enkephalin is a pentapeptide that helps the body regulate nociception. Since the enkephalin hormone is produced internally and binds to the body's opioid receptors, they are referred to as endogenous ligands. Enkephalins suppress painful stimuli in the spinal cord by reacting with various receptor sites on sensory nerve endings. With the knowledge of what is enkephalin, let us go ahead and understand the enkephalin function and working in our body.
Working of Enkephalin
Enkephalins are made when the precursor molecule pro-enkephalin is cleaved to produce either met-enkephalin or leu-enkephalin. The gene for pro-enkephalin is made up of three exons separated by two introns. In humans and other animals, specifically mammals, pro-enkephalin processing produces six copies of met-enkephalin and one copy of leu-enkephalin. Enkephalins are found in many parts of the brain, the spinal cord, and the adrenal medulla. Enkephalins found in plasma are thought to come mainly from the adrenal medulla. Biodegradation of enkephalins occurs by hydrolysis, which cleaves the pentapeptide at the Tyr-Gly connection. Enkephalins and aminopeptidases further break down the molecules into shorter peptides of 2 to 4 amino acids.
Enkephalin is a naturally occurring peptide that is produced by neurons and the cells in the central nervous system and the adrenal medulla respectively and has potent painkilling properties. The smallest of the molecules with pain killing or opiate activity are enkephalins, which are pentapeptides with the consensus Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Xaa series. Several Met-enkephalin analogues had increased activity in the hippocampus during a stress response, while Leu-enkephalin analogues and somatostatins were downregulated. Enkephalins are pain-transmitting proteins present in the thalamus of the brain and certain parts of the spinal cord. These naturally occurring morphine-like substances are released by nerve endings in the central nervous system also called CNS and the adrenal medulla. Enkephalins bind to opiate receptors and cause pain to be released in a regulated manner. Leu-enkephalin is an endogenous agonist for the opiate alkaloids-stimulated receptors. It affects the CNS in a variety of ways, including the neuroendocrine hypothalamus. The brain, as well as the cells of the adrenal medulla, contain high levels of enkephalins.
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Enkephalin Structure
Enkephalin Function in Body
There is multiple enkephalin function in the body and the degree of effect can vary depending on the amount of enkephalin production which varies from individual to individual.
The gonadal function is also regulated by leu-enkephalin that has the amino acid sequence Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu.
Met-enkephalin with the amino acid sequence Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met is involved in pain perception modulation, memory and emotional control.
Regulates food and liquid intake.
Immune system regulation, among other things. Met-enkephalin has immunomodulatory properties in a variety of cell types. Upregulation of CD8 and T cells, inhibition of regulatory T cell function, stimulation of macrophage phagocytosis, increased proliferation of CD4 and T-helper 1 cells, and stimulation of the natural killer cell response are some of the effects.
It also affects the motility of the digestive system and gastric and pancreatic secretion and carbohydrate metabolism.
It is a neuropeptide and thus acts as a signalling molecule of the brain in the human body.
Norepinephrine, a hormone involved in the fight-or-flight response, is released in response to pain, along with endorphins.
The impact is narrow and limited to a local specific brain region like the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex that controls the aforementioned functions.
Enkephalin Opioids have a multifaceted impact on the cardiovascular system, with a short-term effect of lowering heart rate and blood pressure and a longer-term effect of increasing myocardial contraction.
Experience shows that opioids can be used safely in the treatment of cancer pain, with a lower risk of respiratory depression.
Mu and delta-opioid receptors, located in the submucosal and myenteric plexus levels, respectively, are the main opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract. Activation of mu-opioid receptors causes constipation by inhibiting colon motility and increasing fluid absorption that can be avoided when the enkephalin hormone is secreted and binds to the mu-receptor towards which it has great affinity after the delta receptors.
By altering neuronal excitability, enkephalins and endogenous opioids slow gastrointestinal motility. The key effect is caused by the inhibition of K+ and Ca2+ channels, which causes hyperpolarization of the cell and, as a result, prevents conductance of an action potential and the release of neurotransmitters necessary for gut motility.
Conclusion
A better understanding of enkephalins and the ligands, receptors, and signalling pathways that make up the endogenous opioid system could lead to important advancements in the development of therapies for the broad range of physiological processes and organ systems in which these agents are involved. The development of potent analgesic therapies without the deleterious side effects associated with opioidergic agents, as well as the use of met-enkephalin (MENK) in the treatment of various cancers and immune-related diseases, are two areas of research that could yield improved treatments in the near future. The research done in this area can be revolutionary and quite detrimental in the future of science and the body.
FAQs on Enkephalin: Structure, Function, and Biological Importance
1. What are enkephalins and what is their primary role in the body?
Enkephalins are small peptides, specifically pentapeptides, that function as endogenous (internally produced) opioids in the central nervous system. Their primary role is to act as natural painkillers by modulating the perception of pain, a process known as nociception. They bind to opioid receptors to suppress pain signals.
2. How do enkephalins function as natural painkillers?
Enkephalins perform their painkilling function by binding to opioid receptors on neurons within pain pathways in the brain and spinal cord. This binding action inhibits the transmission of pain signals in two main ways: it reduces the release of excitatory neurotransmitters like Substance P from the presynaptic terminal and decreases the excitability of the postsynaptic neuron, effectively blocking the pain message from reaching the brain.
3. Where are enkephalins produced and what triggers their release?
Enkephalins are primarily produced throughout the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the adrenal medulla. Their release is typically triggered by stimuli such as intense pain, physical stress, exercise, and even certain practices like acupuncture. This release is part of the body's natural response to manage pain and stress.
4. What is the difference between enkephalins and endorphins?
While both are natural opioid peptides that relieve pain, enkephalins and endorphins differ in key aspects:
- Structure and Size: Enkephalins are small pentapeptides (5 amino acids long), whereas endorphins are much larger polypeptide chains.
- Potency and Duration: Generally, endorphins (like beta-endorphin) produce a more potent and longer-lasting analgesic effect compared to the shorter-acting enkephalins.
- Origin: While both are found in the CNS, beta-endorphin is notably synthesized in and released from the pituitary gland, allowing it to act as a hormone throughout the body.
5. What is the basic chemical structure of an enkephalin molecule?
Enkephalins are peptides composed of five amino acids, hence they are called pentapeptides. The first four amino acids are always the same: Tyrosine-Glycine-Glycine-Phenylalanine. The fifth amino acid varies, defining the two main types:
- Met-enkephalin: Has Methionine as the terminal amino acid (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met).
- Leu-enkephalin: Has Leucine as the terminal amino acid (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu).
6. How do opioid drugs like morphine interact with the body's natural enkephalin system?
Opioid drugs like morphine are exogenous ligands, meaning they originate from outside the body. They function by mimicking the body's endogenous opioids like enkephalins. Morphine binds to the same opioid receptors (particularly mu-receptors) that enkephalins target, but it does so more strongly and for a longer duration. This produces a much more intense analgesic and euphoric effect than the body's natural system, which can lead to tolerance and physical dependence.
7. Beyond pain relief, what other roles do enkephalins play in the nervous system?
Beyond their primary role in pain modulation, enkephalins are involved in several other important physiological processes. They help regulate emotional responses, contribute to the brain's reward and pleasure pathways, play a part in memory and learning, and assist in controlling autonomic functions like gastrointestinal motility and the body's response to stress.
8. Why are enkephalins sometimes considered both neurotransmitters and hormones?
Enkephalins exhibit a dual role. They act as neurotransmitters when they are released at a synapse to act directly on an adjacent neuron, transmitting a signal across a very short distance. However, when they are released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream, they travel to act on distant target cells, functioning in a manner similar to hormones. In this context, they can be more accurately described as neurohormones.
